Learning Theories -- A Primer Exercise
An Examination of Humanism: The Psychology of the Individual
Student
Created from excerpts from Educational Psychology, a course
taught by Dr. Lawrence Tomei, Duquesne University and Applying
Educational Psychology in the Classroom, a text by Myron H. Dembo,
University of Southern California. Taken with permission and copyright
reserved.
Cooperative Learning: Enactive
Learning at its Best.
When teachers first hear the term Cooperative Learning, many
difference images emerge. Some think that assigning individual projects
and allowing students to interact so they can check their own progress
meets the criteria for cooperative learning. Others think of students
sitting with each other as they do their homework, asking questions of
each other and offering responses to other's inquiries. Unfortunately,
none of the above examples describe this aspect of Humanistic
Psychology.
For a lesson to be considered cooperative learning, it must exhibit
five BASIC ELEMENTS:
- POSITIVE INTERDEPENCE. The students must perceive that
they "sink or swim" together. They must share common goals, divide the
tasks, share resources and information, assume responsibility for
different roles, and, most importantly, receive their rewards based on
group performance.
- FACE-TO-FACE INTERACTION. They must discuss the nature of
the task, decide how best to approach the assignment, and explain to
one another how to solve the problem. The importance of helping others
is stressed.
- INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY. Each student must develop a
sense of personal responsibility to the group. Oftentimes, this aspect
of cooperative learning is the most violated when applied in a
classroom situation. A key to success is for each member to master
material so that they are a help to other members of their group and,
together, the group achieves success.
- COLLABORATIVE SKILLS. Placing students in groups and
telling them to work 'cooperatively' is a formula for failure unless
they are taught the necessary social skills. Working relationships is a
requisite skill before cooperative learning can bear learning results.
- GROUP PROCESSING. This element of cooperative learning
occurs when groups discuss and evaluate their own progress and maintain
effective working relations among members of the group.
In Cooperative Learning, students work together in small (4-6 member)
teams that remain stable in composition for many weeks. There are
numerous ways to organize your classroom, including the following:
- Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT). In TGT, students of
different abilities, rave, and gender are assigned to teams. They work
together, using quizzes and "games," to prepare for the weekly
tournaments. Students are then assigned to "tables" in which they
compete with students of similar abilities. As a result, the lowest
achieving student has the same opportunity to earn points for their
team as higher achievers.
- Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD). A STAD
environment uses the same 4-6 member team composition but replaces the
tournament with 15-minute quizzes. Individual scores are translated
into team scores and additional points are added for improvement.
- Jigsaw. Students are assigned to small, heterogeneous
groups and given a portion of the lesson which they must first learn,
then teach to other members of their group. The group is evaluated on
the material once all the teaching is completed.
- Group Investigation. Projects are the focus of this format
of Cooperative Learning. Teams divide the project tasks into subtopics
and assign them to team members. Projects are then presented to the
class with each member providing his/her portion of the effort.
Research on Cooperative Learning. In most cases, the research
has found a positive effect on student achievement in a cooperative
classroom. Like most humanistic endeavors, affective learning increase
more than pure academics. It can improve student peer perceptions, the
acceptance of mainstreamed students, and student peer expectations. The
key determinant of the successful application of cooperative learning,
however, remains with the proper preparation of the student and the
group before entering into a teaching-learning application. Researcher
have presented a number of interpersonal skills that are pivotal to
cooperative learning. They include:
- FORMING. Forming skills are needed for organizing the
group and for establishing minimum norms of appropriate behavior. Examples:
staying on task, eliminating "put-downs" during discussions.
- FUNTIONING. Functioning skills involve managing and
implementing the group's efforts to accomplish tasks and to maintain
effective working relationships among its members. Examples:
knowing when and how to ask for help, clarifying another's position.
- FORMULATING. These skills are directed at helping students
to understand and remember the material being studied in the group. Examples:
encouraging the group to summarize, using learning strategies to
remember important ideas.
- FERMENTING. Fermenting skills stimulate academic
controversy so that students will rethink and challenge one another's
positions, ideas, and reasoning. Examples: how to criticize
ideas but not people, knowing how to probe for information and arriving
at possible solutions to problems.
Check out these sites for more information:
Student Team
Learning
Reading List for Cooperative Learning
PRACTICE QUESTION: In which Cooperative Learning situation
or technique is academic material divided equally among students who in
turn study their part and then teach it to other student members of
their team?
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Created and Maintained by Dr. Lawrence Tomei
Copyright ©2004
Revised 10-20-2004